Year 2: Literature review

James Kitcher

FD Games Design

Literature Review 2014

Brown, D., (2007) Gaming DNA - On Narrative and Gameplay Gestalts[Online] London Available from http://www.digra.org/wp-content/uploads/digital-library/07311.40380.pdf [Accessed 03.12.13]

Douglas Brown is a lecturer in digital games theory. He holds an MA in Games Theory and Design and a PHD in Games Theory both from Brunel University. His recent work has included research into how the suspension of disbelief works in videogames. Douglas Brown is described as a lifelong gamer who has experience of working in the games industry. He has a keen interest in games and narrative and works in collaboration with Tanya Krzywinska to research the subject.

This text will be useful as an element of my research because it concentrates on the links between the physical process of game play and the interpretative process of reading it.

Majewski, J., (2003) Theorising Video Game Narrative Unknown.[Online] Available from http://www.majewscy.net/jakub/mt_gplay.html. [Accessed 03.12.13]

Jakob Majewski holds a Masters in Film and Television focussing on interactive media. He has industry experience and has worked for Vivid Games and City Interactive.

I have chosen this as a useful source of information for my essay because it "examines the presence, need for and problems associated with narrative in video games" (Majewski). I consider this to be a useful text because it considers both sides of the debate.

Year 2: The real deal

Will Brooker opens the article by suggesting that there is no originality left and all that is left is to imitate what already exists.  Brooker defines the x factor phenomenon as a mirrorball of snatched images. This indicates a further fragmentation of imagery and greater reliance on the past for inspiration. I agree with Brooker in that the X factor offers a familiar environment and experience that offers nothing new. Whilst the show highlights the potential for fame for the winner it is actually the runners up who seem to have had greater success. Brooker cites Baudrillard "When the real is no longer what it used to be nostalgia assumes its full meaning." This suggests that our memories of an event are often clouded by nostalgia and personal experience.

Brooker talks about the group Little Mix. The group are presented as a new and exciting act whereas in reality the act is a copy of Girls Aloud. The X Factor presents the girls as individuals that you can associate with to encourage the public to vote and ultimately buy Cds and associated materials. This show appeals to a demographic.

Brooker discusses the audience's reaction to the show and the manner in which they view the event. The live singer has become secondary to the TV screen and ultimately the screen of their mobile phone. This reminds me of Magritte's image ceci n'est pas une pipe in that the audience are looking at a picture of the singer rather than looking at the singer.

 

The audience are happy to be part of something they see as significant whilst in reality it is in fact a charade. The event is laid out ahead of time but more significantly the event is in no way organic and runs to a predetermined precise schedule. Despite the scripted nature of the show which the audience are aware of the audience remains happy to invest in the performers. I think this relates to the fact that the audience can empathise with the acts whom they have perceived to be "ordinary" people like themselves.

 

The author suggests that beyond the world of X Factor we live in a society controlled by spectacle. Debord offers the following definition which stronly relates to Brookers article

 

The spectacle appears at once as society itself, as a part of society and as a means of unification. As a part of society, it is that sector where all attention, all consciousness converges. Being isolated- and precisely for that reason- this sector is the locus of illusion and false consciousness; the unity it imposes is merely the official language of generalised separation. (Debord 2002 p12)

 

Debord. G., (2002) The Society of the Spectacle. 7th ed USA MIT Press.

 

 

 

In games design I believe there is still the potential for originality. However in AAA games trends are usually followed as the game manufacturers remain unwilling to take risks for fear of losing their place in the market. Gaming has become an accepted part of society which also embraces spectacle.

 

Year 2: Viewers make meaning

I have been reading a relatively small section of this paper in order to understand it. The overall theme of the text is about how people create meanings from images such as paintings and film that are sometimes completely different from what the creator or producer of the image originally intended.

In the text the author suggests that images are not just placed waiting for the viewer to find them, that there is in fact other factors to bring into account. The author describes ‘complex negotiations’ and describes the codes and conventions that structure the image, how viewers understand it and the context in which the image is shown. Therefore the producer has to understand political, social, cultural and economic influences of the viewer. Also understand how the viewers will react to the image and in what context they receive the image. The author refers to the viewer as an individual rather than as part of an audience. He aims to engage and cause a reaction from the viewers’, rather than mould a collective audience.

The author introduces the concept of interpellation, I understand this to mean, engaging the viewer and allowing them to respond and question. In order for the viewers to understand the meaning of an image the producer has to understand the codes and conventions of the social group he is addressing. In advertising producers seek to interpellate viewers/consumers by implying they are within the advert, allowing viewers to associate with the message portrayed by the image. Some viewers may not relate to the advert directly, but may associate with it in an indirect manner, for example I may not wish to buy the perfume, however, my sister would really like it.   

Producers can evoke feelings within their audience, to engage or interpellate, this can be achieved in the style of the photograph or image. An image may have close-ups, blurred perspective or use of warm colours to portray a nostalgic, traditional view of childhood, as seen in Wethers Originals. Alternatively, emotions of disgust or sorrow can create a personal response to charitable advertising for donations. Therefore by knowing the codes and conventions the producer can reach targeted individuals within their intended audience.

Producers Intended Meanings

A producer can be an individual, organisation or a collective of artists. The theorist Roland Barthes in ‘the death of an Author’ (1967) suggests that when a piece of art is published it no longer belongs to the original creator, but to the public domain. Barthes suggests that the producer does not have authority, it is the critical, analytical reader who interprets the work from a perspective relevant to time and situation in which it was read. An example of this would be Tolkein’s ‘Lord of the rings’ which originally was not received well by critics, later, after the cultural changes of the sixties, the book became more relevant. Barthes’ idea that the viewer observed art and produced the meanings, caused the death of the author, is less relevant today thanks to photoshop and other editing software.

Michel Foucault in 1979 raised the question who is the author, when organisations produce an advert the author is sometimes not even recognised but the brand is. Organisations may intend to give a direct message, however, it all depends on the context that the viewer perceives the image and this cannot be predicted by the producer/organisation. Sometimes the meaning is received in a way that the original creators never intended. In the case of the movie, Titanic, viewers enjoyed the film for diverse reasons; the history, social history or its romantic themes, this was the intended message. However, for middle aged Chinese viewers the subtext was that of regret in regards to the loss of socialism and their youthful dreams.     

Year 2: Viewers make meaning.

I have been reading a relatively small section of this paper in order to understand it. The overall theme of the text is about how people create meanings from images such as paintings and film that are sometimes completely different from what the creator or producer of the image originally intended.

In the text the author suggests that images are not just placed waiting for the viewer to find them, that there is in fact other factors to bring into account. The author describes ‘complex negotiations’ and describes the codes and conventions that structure the image, how viewers understand it and the context in which the image is shown. Therefore the producer has to understand political, social, cultural and economic influences of the viewer. Also understand how the viewers will react to the image and in what context they receive the image. The author refers to the viewer as an individual rather than as part of an audience. He aims to engage and cause a reaction from the viewers’, rather than mould a collective audience.

The author introduces the concept of interpellation, I understand this to mean, engaging the viewer and allowing them to respond and question. In order for the viewers to understand the meaning of an image the producer has to understand the codes and conventions of the social group he is addressing. In advertising producers seek to interpellate viewers/consumers by implying they are within the advert, allowing viewers to associate with the message portrayed by the image. Some viewers may not relate to the advert directly, but may associate with it in an indirect manner, for example I may not wish to buy the perfume, however, my sister would really like it.   

Producers can evoke feelings within their audience, to engage or interpellate, this can be achieved in the style of the photograph or image. An image may have close-ups, blurred perspective or use of warm colours to portray a nostalgic, traditional view of childhood, as seen in Wethers Originals. Alternatively, emotions of disgust or sorrow can create a personal response to charitable advertising for donations. Therefore by knowing the codes and conventions the producer can reach targeted individuals within their intended audience.

Producers Intended Meanings

A producer can be an individual, organisation or a collective of artists. The theorist Roland Barthes in ‘the death of an Author’ (1967) suggests that when a piece of art is published it no longer belongs to the original creator, but to the public domain. Barthes suggests that the producer does not have authority, it is the critical, analytical reader who interprets the work from a perspective relevant to time and situation in which it was read. An example of this would be Tolkein’s ‘Lord of the rings’ which originally was not received well by critics, later, after the cultural changes of the sixties, the book became more relevant. Barthes’ idea that the viewer observed art and produced the meanings, caused the death of the author, is less relevant today thanks to photoshop and other editing software.

Michel Foucault in 1979 raised the question who is the author, when organisations produce an advert the author is sometimes not even recognised but the brand is. Organisations may intend to give a direct message, however, it all depends on the context that the viewer perceives the image and this cannot be predicted by the producer/organisation. Sometimes the meaning is received in a way that the original creators never intended. In the case of the movie, Titanic, viewers enjoyed the film for diverse reasons; the history, social history or its romantic themes, this was the intended message. However, for middle aged Chinese viewers the subtext was that of regret in regards to the loss of socialism and their youthful dreams.     

Year 2: Death of the author

I have been reading a text called The Death of the Author by Roland Barthes. In this post I will be attempting to draw meaning from this one paragraph at a time.

The first paragraph opens with a sentence from Balzac that says "It was Woman, with her sudden fears, her irrational whims, her instinctive fears, her unprovoked bravado, her delicious delicacy of feeling". Then Barthes asks a question whether or not this sentence comes from Balzac’s own experience or knowledge or if it is universal wisdom or romantic psychology. Authorship provides freedom to be many people at once. The whole first paragraph suggests that the literature exists independently from the original author. It is hard to know where the author ends and the story begins.

The second paragraph backs this statement as it talks about how primitive societies undertake narrative. The narrator's performance is admired but not his genius. The text goes on to explain that the author is a modern concept and how much the person is appreciated through magazines, biographies, entries in literary history books and many others. Everyone remembers the author's personality, ideas and passions. Society tends to remember the author but not the person with his quirks and imperfections.

Ideology

In this post I will be talking about ideology and the effect it has on people.  Unfortunately I was unable to attend the session in which we discussed this subject so I will be relying solely on the presentation that was uploaded on the college resource page.

Ideology refers to the thoughts, beliefs and social values of individuals or a collective that help to provide context and meaning in everyday life.  This basically means that ideologies are what make up everyone's social and moral compass.

The very first slide in the presentation talked about Jeremy Bentham's panopticon.  A circular prison with a tower in the middle, this is where the guards would monitor the prisoners.  In their cells, the prisoners would be unable to see the guards in the tower but the opposing party would still be able to see them.  This would mean that the guards wouldn't have to be on duty all the time and the prisoners would feel under constant scrutiny which in turn would encourage the inmates to behave better.

This concept has made its way into today's society in regards to the amount of CCTV cameras there are in the country watching our every move.  This draws parallels between the panopticon and real-life in reference to behaving under the notion that we are being monitored constantly by authority regardless of whether or not if anyone is on duty.  I honestly think that this is a bit excessive because everyone is being scrutinised even if they are innocent.  We have learned to accept this.

We then moved on to Karl Marx.  He talks about how ideologies are imposed upon the working classes by those that have a major influence who in turn legitimates their position.  Legitimate powers can't just be thrown aside on a whim.  Afterwards we looked at Gramsci who says that ideology provides each class with an identity despite being part of the system.

We next looked at hegemony which refers to an ideology becoming part of everyone's common sense and understanding.  Gramsci says that hegemony is enforced not by force but by consent.  Building up alliances is what helps the concept of hegemony survive as a means of maintaining power.  I personally think that hegemony is a very difficult thing to get over in regards to the amount of time it has been in effect.

We moved on to Althusser.  He talks about methods of imposing ideologies on people which are Repressive State Apparatuses and Ideological States Apparatuses.  RSA refers to government administrations, the police and the army who function by violence to force people into the dominant ideology.  ISA entail schools, churches, family and belief in the law to gently nudge people towards the dominant ideology.

A quote from Tony Benn, a member of the British Labour Party says “If democracy is ever to be threatened, it will not be by revolutionary groups burning government offices and occupying the broadcasting and newspaper offices of the world. It will come from disenchantment, cynicism and despair caused by the realisation that the New World Order means we are all to be managed and not represented.”  I personally like this statement as it says that democracy will be threatened once governments start to dictate and monitor their people instead of existing for the people.

We then looked at a few dominant ideologies such as liberalism and social democracy.  Afterwards we looked at radical ideologies such as socialism, communism and Marxism.  People sometimes use ideology as a means of liberation against the struggle of the status quo.  Ideologies are most prominent in political and religious movements.  James Scott puts forward the thick and thin theory in regards to enforcing ideologies on people.  The thick theory explains that people who believe actively in values that justify their own subordination and the thin theory which refers to the thought that conditions the individual is living in is natural and inevitable.

I personally think that ideologies can both be a good thing and a bad thing.  It's good that people hold on to certain values that help them through their life but it’s dangerous when people believe in their own values too much that they must enforce it on everyone else and anyone who disagrees will be savagely and brutally punished.  Religious fundamentalists are a prime example of my second statement.  Ideologies are what define people as individuals.My

My thoughts on Utopia and Dystopia

In this post I will be discussing the subject of Utopia and dystopia.

The word utopia is derived from the Greek word which means "no place" and "good place".  The word basically describes a society or civilisation that lives under perfect and ideal conditions.

Utopia is also the name of a book written by Thomas More in 1516.  This work of fiction takes place on an island which is named after the title.  On the island the people have collective ownership over food stored in warehouses where everyone takes only what they need.  Men and women do the same amount of work on their farms to provide food for the collective society and some widowed women may also become priests.

More's fictional island also introduces the concepts of a welfare state with free healthcare for all and with state sanctioned voluntary euthanasia for the elderly or infirm.  Priests are allowed to marry and divorce is allowed.  There are no lawyers and the law is presented transparently to the people in order to understand right from wrong.  There is no crime.  Women must also confess their sins to their husbands once a month.

The lifestyle of the islands inhabitants this isn't a Communist or socialist state.  The households elect a leader to rule over individual states but the whole island is ruled by the King.

On the surface this way of life is seen as absolute perfection but deep down there are some concerning factors.  Each household on the island has two slaves and women must, once a month tell their husbands of any misdeeds.  Equality doesn't seem to exist here despite the fact that this island is a supposed to be a utopia.  The law of the land is made easy for the inhabitants to understand in order to stop crime from ever happening but, in my opinion an understanding of the law won't prevent crime but only make it worse.  The subject of euthanasia that is state sanctioned is a very prickly topic as it entails the concepts of people voluntarily ending their own lives and the fact that it is legal to do so.

Utilitarianism means that happiness is the most desirable end that all men strive for or, to quote Jeremy Bentham "it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong".  This basically means that whoever has the most votes, wins.  John Stuart Mill however takes into consideration the fact that one ideal may be the most desirable could also be the worst option for everyone else who disagrees.  The options must be considerably weighed up for the greater good.  I strongly agree with John Stuart Mill because it encourages critical thinking in the process of deciding the best course of action instead of just enforcing laws that only enrich the lives of the majority.

The concept of a flawed paradise is displayed in a painting called the Garden of earthly delights by Hieronymus Bosch.  Underneath the utopian imagery there is an uneasy and sinister undertone.  In my honest opinion I think that all utopia's are flawed because not everyone thinks alike.

A utopian ideal is shared by people who agree with it and those who disagree are shunned by the majority.  A real-life example of this is from Levittown, built by William Levitt and his family in 1948.  The town consisted of houses built with the same materials, in bulk and all looked exactly the same inside and out.  The housing was intended for soldiers that had returned from the recent war and their families.  The Town capitalized on the post war depression.

When a black family tried to buy a house in Levittown, nearly all the residents who had lived there since the beginning protested against the purchase.  This was due to the fact that in those days if the community went black they would be massive financial problems.  This still came down to racism.  In my opinion a utopia is only a utopia from the perspective of whoever created it and whatever the creator detests will be considered undesirable to whoever agreed to this in said utopia.

A dystopia is the polar opposite of Utopia where everything is terrible and destructive.  A dystopia is most disturbing when it appears beneath a sugary coating.  I had a look at a clip from the movie Blue Velvet.  The footage introduced us to a seemingly perfect town complete with children holding hands on their way to school.  We then focus on a man watering the garden who in turn accidentally cuts of his ear.  It lands on the grass and is then devoured by insects.  I believe this best describes what a dystopia is.

More examples of dystopias came from books such as The Beach by Alex Garland and Island by Aldous Huxley.  As mentioned in a previous post the game mirrors edge also portrays a dystopia.  More explicit dystopias are depicted in The Road by Cormac McCarthy and the movie Children of Men directed by Alfonso Cuarón.